To what extent do organizations challenge the nation state’s ability to shape domestic economic and social policy?

To what extent do organizations like the IMF, WTO, and World Bank challenge the nation state’s ability to shape domestic economic and social policy? This should not be a paper about the history of these organizations. The International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank, and the General Agreements on Trades and Tariffs(GATT), which turn into the World Trade Organization(WTO), are the main organizations that deal with the stability of the global economy.They have done this but promoting trade, issuing loans to countries in economic trouble and allowing international investing. The problem that has arisen from these organizations is that they have sacrificed the domestic economy of many countries in order to support their global agenda. A quick over view of how the WTO, IMF and the World Bank started and operate. Post World War II, many countries looked to rebuild the financial structure of the global economy without losing their power in the economy. The three organizations ea ch share a common goal of international policies.The IMF was created to maintain global monetary cooperation and stability by making loans to countries with balance of payment problems, stabilizing exchange rates and stimulating growth and employment, the WTO deals with international trade, both formalizing trade and settling disputes between countries, and the World Bank has steadily increased its original mandate of providing long term loans for reconstruction, to funding multimillion dollar infrastructure projects in developing countries. These individual organizations have come under much scrutiny for their involvement in the international economy.They have been accused of negatively affecting the economies of its participating countries instead of helping. Many policies set forth by these groups have shown a drastic change in the growth of the domestic economy and social policies. These policies mostly affect less developed countries’ economies since the IMF and the Worl d Bank are control by few, wealthy nations like the â€Å"Big Five†(U. S. , UK, Germany, Japan, and France) who look to remain the controlling powers in the global economy. The reason for this uneven voting power is because the IMF and World Bank are set up so that the voting power is distributed by thefinancial strength of countries. Unlike the IMF and World Bank, the WTO does in fact have equal voting power through its participating members. Less developed countries do not have the resources and government power, like these more developed countries. So even with the equal voting power, these less developed countries still fall victim to these more developed countries. The IMF, World Bank and WTO are often interconnecting because how they each contribute to international policies. For example, a country that is looking to increase its domestic economy will turn to the World Bank for a loan in order to invest in a project.More often than not, these project result in more debt for this country than profit. By putting themselves in a bigger financial hole, this country must now turn towards the IMF in order to keep them from becoming bankrupt. Before the IMF issues a loan, this country must agree to certain conditions that often require economy policies to be adjusted. These conditions allow for foreign corporations to invest and control the economy of this country. The WTO joins in by maintaining trade agreements set up by them.â€Å"The WTO has the authority to prevent, overrule, or dilute and laws of any nation deemed to burden the investment and market prerogative of transnational corporations. † (ROTHENBERG pg 450) This allows for the WTO to maintain its control over this country. The major factor in this process is the IMF’s terms and conditions that they require from their participating members. These conditions are greatly detrimental to the domestic economy of these countries because once these conditions are satisfied, these countr ies are now left powerless and unable to grow internally.These terms include cutting social spending and the national budget, increasing interest rates, dismantle regulations international investing and ownership of public businesses, eliminating tariffs, cut and redirect subsides certain goods, and decrease government power. This type of â€Å"structural adjustment is conducive to a form of â€Å"economic genocide† which is carried out through the conscious and deliberate manipulation of market forces. †(ROTHENBERG pg. 455) First, the cutting of social spending and the national budget affect the domestic economies and social policies in quite a few ways. Cutting socialspending has a very obvious affect on the social policies by taking money away from health care, education, military, ect.. The national debt, on the other hand, allows the IMF and World Bank to reduce the amount of money in the domestic economy, which in turn forces countries to have to take out loans f rom these groups. These loans that are taken are often too hard to repay. This in a way creates a paradox between these organizations and the people they are trying to help. They make it so that poorer nations need to take receive help from the IMF, but by taking their help they inevitably put themselves in more debt and economic turmoil.One of the big ways the domestic economy and social policies are being challenged is the dismantling of foreign ownership and international investing. This creates a huge uphill battle for the local enterprises. By getting rid of these regulations, the IMF allows foreign investor to control the economy and run local companies out of business as well as control many of the public sectors of the economy, like healthcare or education. With public sectors of an economy now controlled by an outside investor, the domestic economies are not only at risk but the social policies are also subject to much change.Increase in interest rates is a direct result of tightening monetary policies. This has made domestic borrowing very hard. For example, many smaller and poorer famers must fight for the little money available. And because they are small and poor, they lack the collateral and are a high risk so when they borrow money they are subject to interest rates of 50 to 400 percent. â€Å"Rice traders generally provide loans for production inputs and then extract small farmers to lose their mortgage land.With an increasing number of landless laborers in the countryside, real rural wagers and income have declined, and the incidence of starvation has doubled since 1985. The latest figures indicate that approximately 75 percent of rural households live in abject poverty. † (Danaher pg. 65) By eliminating tariffs, taxes are not being applied to international companies. This gives these companies an easier time incorporating their product into domestic economies. These products can be made for cheaper than the domestic product. And once t hese companies are producing in these countries, these groups can now protect them.This causes competition between the domestic product and the international product. Cutting and redirecting subsides on certain goods. Subsides are used to help produce certain goods, such as wheat and vegetables, at a more affordable cost. These subsides are often the only profit that these companies make since it cost so much to produce these goods which are sold for cheap. Without subsided, these manufactures must increase the cost of goods and this increase make it hard for these domestic economies to resist taking loans from these organizations.This also makes these economies more dependent on imported goods. This all leads to a reducing in the government power for many of these countries. By reducing the domestic economy and social policies, these countries have little say in how they are treated. So instead of helping these countries that look to these organizations for help in developing their Gross Domestic Product (GDP), the IMF, WTO and World Bank will leave these less developed countries in a poorer state than they were originally.And on top of that fact, slowly weakening the government powers of these less developed countries will lead to less democratic countries with any power within the global economy. All of these previously mentioned factors have contributed the IMF, WTO, and World Bank’s negative reputation as far as hurting the domestic economy and social policies of many countries, especially less developed ones. In a lot of cases, these organizations have a tight hold on the countries that rely on them for help.It is shown that between these three organizations, the main problem with their plan is that it only favors the more developed countries while at the same time putting restricting on the domestic economies of less developed countries. These less developed countries few options and therefore must turn towards these organizations in the hopes of increasing their economies. They are often left in more debt and a worse GDP because of their few financial resources to invest in the foreign trade and their lack of power to stop other countries from doing the same to them.

Cost Effectiveness And Commitment

Human resource managers in organizations have various tasks to carry out in an organization. One of the tasks is carrying out cost effectiveness in an organization. They also have the responsibility of ensuring that there is commitment both at the individual level and organizational level. Carrying out cost effectiveness in an organization has got its own effects both positive and negative. Human resource managers need to ensure that the consequences of cost effectiveness and commitment are reconcilable. In each and every organization, there is normally the pressure of reducing cots so that profits are maximized.As human resource managers develop a cost reduction strategy, it is important that there be some reconciliation with the commitment in the organization. Before looking at the extent that consequences of cost effectiveness and commitment reconcile one has to have the broader picture of the effects of reducing costs within an organization. (Condrey, 1998) Cost reduction or cost effectiveness can be carried out through various means. One of them is through minimizing the number of employees within the organization.There are some cases where human resource managers are compelled to carry out retrenchment of some employees in order to minimize costs. This means that the few employees that remain in the organization have to carry out multitasking. Cost effectiveness in an organization can also be implemented by reducing employee’s bonuses and allowances. This includes scraping off of medical allowances from employees’ salaries. The other way that cost effectiveness is carried out by human resource managers is through introducing of technology. This includes having computers and internet in an organization.Instead of having messengers in an organization, use of emails is incorporated. This is very cost effective. Human resource managers also increase employees’ working hours so that there is more productivity in an organization. All these ventures carried out with the motive of enhancing cost effectiveness have got various consequences to an organization. For instance when retrenchment is carried out, there is a likelihood that that the remaining employees will do their best at work. When salaries are reduced and also allowances and bonuses reduced, this can greatly de-motivate employees. Maund, 2001)Research indicates that it is a very tricky venture to incorporate cost effective practices like the ones that are listed above without affecting or compromising the organization’s growth potential by having employees being less committed. While carrying out cost effectiveness in an organization is a venture of trimming the fat, human resource managers have to be very careful such that they do not cut into the bone too. This simply means that everything carried out within an organization to help minimize costs has to be very well planned and the consequences of the same well evaluated.Many human resource managers just carry out cost effectiveness without having any buy in from the employees in the organization. Even as this venture is carried out, there is the need of identifying the core competencies in relation to improving the entire efficacy within the organization. Outsourcing is also one of the consequences or the outcomes of cost effectiveness. This has got adverse effects on the general commitment of employees. Employees can feel that they are not that important or rather qualified to carry out the tasks within the organization.That is why it is important that consequences of carrying out cost effectiveness within an organization be clearly evaluated such that they do not have such adverse effects on employees’ commitment. (Wintermantel, 1997) There are various steps that can be taken by human resource managers in the motive of implementing cost effectiveness. This includes contracting out some of the business in the organization that is not very core in nature. One has to und erstand the consequences of these ventures can affect the company’s relationship with customers such that they change focus and become less committed to the company’s products or services.In this case, whatever step that is taken has to be done with great caution and after very extensive consultation such that an equilibrium state can be reached. This is whereby there is cost effectiveness and yet the organization continues to experience growth. The extent to which the consequences of cost effectiveness and commitment can reach a reconcilable state is ensuring that proper planning is carried out. Cost effectiveness as many scholars say is not rocket science. It is said that anyone can actually carry out cost cutting in an organization, but very few do it well such that the organization suffers a great deal.For the consequences of cost effectiveness and commitment to reconcile the whole process has to be carried out very efficiently and effectively. The following consid erations have to be put in place. †¢ One has to remember that money is not everything †¢ Change has to be carried carefully When costs in an organization are cut, there is great realignment that occurs in an organization. Cost effectiveness sometimes means elimination of departments, people, customers, research and development projects and even initiatives.This affects the Company’s activities and therefore human resource managers need to know that it is not just an issue of what or who to eliminate. Rather it is an issue with adequate preparation for the same, anticipation and consequences of the changes that help in overall determination of the success within an organization. The extent to which the desired consequences of cost effectiveness and commitment can merge is just having an initial focus in the whole venture. The human resource manager has to clearly ascertain that the desired change in cost effectiveness in the organization is actually very necessary â € ¢ How the success will be measured†¢ The areas that have priorities be clearly defined †¢ How the consequences of cost effectiveness will be managed The other way through which the consequences of cost effectiveness and commitment can be merged is through building of local support within the organization and also simple listening to the local voices within the organization. It is said that good listeners are quite hard to find. This is where there is picking up of messages that are conveyed through gestures, expressions silence and behavioural cues.This is quite important when carrying out cost effectiveness in an organization. Carrying out cost effectives in an organization is known to be a very difficult task. This is the case especially when employees or team members speak different languages and come from different cultures. For instance in multilingual environments, problems are bound to occur in relation to intent and meaning of speech. Human resource managers ha ve the hard task when carrying out cost effectiveness such that not only people from a certain tribe have to be laid off.This has got its own effects on the commitment of employees that remain in the organization. Human resource management consequences of commitment and cost effectiveness are only reconcilable when various measures are put in place. This includes empowering employees in the organization to develop solutions which can be owned locally. Human resource managers need to set the vision and then have the team coached. This allows the local stakeholders to own the whole process of ensuring cost effectiveness. This makes employees be held to their commitment.Cost effectiveness change can only be effective or successful when the projects have people who are empowered in control and planning of the whole process. (Thomson, 2003) Commitment can be build to ensure success among employees, vendors, customers, local managers and partners. It is good that good communication networ ks be carried out so that so that commitment of the stakeholders within the organization is enhanced. Human resource managers have to clearly understand that success within an organization is not just in monetary values. It is also through commitment of stakeholders within the organization too. Wintermantel, 1997)Top human resource manager in an organization has to demonstrate simultaneously the commitment to listening, cost reduction and listening from employees and other stakeholders within the organization. One of the critical tools is having effective communication. This helps a great deal to maintain the commitment of employees within the organization even if ventures of cutting costs are implemented. Cost reduction is known to be a matter of survival for very many organizations. While there can be consensus on this issue, the challenge normally lies in delivering the whole process of cost reduction. ConclusionThe desired human resource management consequences of commitment and cost effectiveness are reconcilable. This is when proper measures are considered when implementing cost effectiveness within the organization. Communication is a very important factor that has to be considered when carrying out cost effectiveness. Proper communication has to be carried out to the various stakeholders within the organization like customers, vendors and employees. Change even if it is in line with cost effectiveness has to be carried out carefully. Human resource managers need to know that success in an organization is not just in monetary terms only.

Organized Crime Essay

The times are definitely changing. As civilization progresses, human way of living also improves. Sadly, even the negative entities have progressed executing their evil ways; crime has come from petty to being organized. Of course, there are still those who commit crime in their own little ways, so to speak. But the world is now faced with international crime syndicates who operate or influence various institutions, government most especially, and which are harder to combat. There are different definitions for organized crime offered by different individuals or organizations. I have thought of organized crime as being operated by a group having some formal structure which aims to gain profit through illegal activities. Most organized crime syndicates use or threat to use violence, and influence government officials, with some even managing to become one, to control illegal economic sector or jurisdiction. Most of the time, organized crime hide beneath legal operations but gain more on their illegal operations, which includes, but not limited to, drug trafficking, prostitution, illegal gambling and human trafficking. Combating organized crime takes a lot more effort than with the petty everyday crime because of their manipulation of government officials. Some organized crime syndicates may also have the support of unwitting citizen, who are being deceived through the syndicate’s socially accepted operation. Organized crime is mainly different from other criminal groups in that while some groups are motivated by political ideals or religious beliefs, organized crime syndicates operate almost exclusively for profit. They enter the political arena to gain protection for their illegal activities and may raise a new cult to control and manipulate their jurisdiction. Just like any formal organizations, organized crime group have their own hierarchical structure; and just like any crime group, organized crime syndicates would readily resort to violence. There are specialized members doing specific jobs for their illegal operation, which as already specified, may include public officials to protect their business. Usually, higher rank members take care of business. Managing the business, finding new market, business negotiations, all tasks that are essential to the survival of a business just as if it were an ordinary legal business enterprise are some of the specifications of higher rank members. They may also be the ones who have connections within the government, or are government officials themselves. Lower rank members are the ones specified to perform the â€Å"dirty† jobs: murder, arson, or threatening those who oppose or which are dangerous to the group’s illegal operations. Organized crime syndicates also abhor other groups with the same operation. Operating chiefly for profit, they try to eliminate the competition as much as possible. Less competition means greater profit. Organized crime need not worry about losing business as they can always find patrons for the goods and services they render. In other words, organized crime businesses are always in demand. The text defines organized crime as a group of â€Å"three or more persons, with hierarchical links or personal relationships, which permit their leaders to earn profits or control territories or makets, internal or foreign, by means of violence, intimidation or corruption, both in furtherance of criminal activity and to infiltrate the legitimate industry. Reading the text have offered new insights about organized crime but has not changed my perception, which were basically identical. In sum, an organized crime, as the term implies, is a group with a formal structure, just as any organization, that operates with specialized rules and regulations (organized) incorporating various illegal activities (crime) for the purpose of profit.

Telephony Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Telephony - Essay Example Over the years, the increasing development in the field of technology presents the capability of human beings to master over nature (Vergragt 2006, pp.1-3). Telephony represents that form of technology that allows easy and active interactions between different points through the availability of voice equipments. Telephone is the most commonly observed and used instrument of the technology of telephony. It provides interactive facilities to every residential house as well as in businesses. Telephones have also been associated with telephony switching systems and exchanges that are necessary for the processing of the calls occurring between two points. Developments have occurred over the years in telephony reflecting a shift from the initial local point to point connections to highly sophisticated connections in the modern world (What is Telephony 2012). The present study focuses on the origins, characteristics, and consequences of technological system considering the example of teleph ony. ... xtensive knowledge on the nature of sound that he applied in determining the possibility of passing multiple messages through at the same time through the same wire (Bellis 2012). The figure on the left presents one of the earliest telephones as invented by Graham Bell. The use of multiple telegraph had been suggested and tried earlier as well. However, with Bell’s application of a harmonic approach, the idea could be actually implemented. It was in the year 1878 that the first Bell telephone company was established. It is now known as the American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T). In 1878, the first exchange of telephone was established in New Haven. Earlier the connections of the telephones had to be done in pairs. In the year 1889, the system of pay phone came into existence. Thereafter, with the advancements in the technology, the touch-tone phones, cordless phones, and mobile phones were developed (Bellis 2012). Characteristics of Telephony: The Technological System : The service of telephony or telecommunications is provided by an industry that includes different groups of people like the engineers, scientists and craftsmen. Telephone companies are either under the control of the government of a country or they may also be private in nature (Freeman 2004, p.1). Basic Telephony: The simple connection of the telephone as is most commonly known to the world is characterised by a device that is connected to other points across the world through use of pair of wires. The parts of such a telephone include a handset, a cradle, along with the signalling system that contains either dial or push buttons for making the connections. The handset is created with two electroacoustic transducers, the earpiece that acts as the receiver, and a mouthpiece that acts as the

Process and Change Management Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Process and Change Management - Assignment Example The company has continued to benchmark with a few global players in the industry to and has promised to improve the qualities in the oil products produced by the company. The perceived quality of the products produced by the company has continued to improve. The company utilizes the best chain of distribution in sending products to the retail stores. The company has four big distributors around the country that ensures the products produced are available to the retailers. Such products include petrol, lubricant, engine oil and many others (Sim, 2012). The company has maintained warehouses at its distribution centres with an intention of ensuring emergency and constant supply of the products. The company has strong base of technological support and human resource. Some of the challenges that the company is currently facing include decreasing amount of crude oil in the market, high cost of inventory, and pressure from the international community on the need to shift to green production and high delivery time which result to higher cost of production. The company has stressed on the need to utilize their services and remain within the organization so as the bond between the company and the organization is maintained (Mathews, 2011). The company has maintained an effective system of transportation from the point of manufacturer to distribution centres as well as the to the retail outlets. The company has of late focused o hiring vehicles with an intention of reducing the cost of vehicles. In chain of supply the company is currently utilizing allocating gaming policy to help distribute goods. The suppliers will place the products on allocation in cases where the supply declines. The supplier may be forced to cut short of the quantity supplied with an intention of ensuring that all nodes of downstream at least get something. Some customers have sometimes ordered more to compensate

Genetically Modified Crops Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Genetically Modified Crops - Essay Example Some have termed the genetically manipulated crops ‘frankenfoods’ and have questioned the potential harm to people and the environment that could come from their production. This discussion will answer these questions regarding the safety of these foods and present an overview of bioengineered foods. Bioengineering food involves â€Å"splicing a gene from one organism, such as a bacterium, into a plant or animal to confer certain traits† (Muth et al, 2002). These traits, developed for agricultural crops such as corn, soybeans, canola and cotton include increasing nutrients, tolerance to herbicides and drought, resistance to fungus and insects and reduced spoilage. Bioengineered corn and soybeans have become increasingly widespread among farmers during the last decade and the products can be commonly found in most grocery stores. Companies that engineer and produce bioengineered foods as well as manufacturers that choose to use these foods in their ingredients are faced with a stringent and ever-developing regulatory oversight by three government agencies; the USDA (U.S. Department of Agriculture), the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) and the FDA (Food and Drug Administration). Which agency regulates a particular product is determined by the intended use of the crop. Very often, a product is regulated by multiple agencies. The Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, a division of the USDA monitors products and organisms that affect plants. Products and organisms derived from bioengineering methods introduced to or manufactured in the U.S. require USDA identification. This agency then determines if the item in question is a ‘regulated article’ or a possible disease. If the USDA decides that the product or crop is to be regulated, â€Å"a written approval usually is issued that designates conditions for introduction of the article† (McCammon,

Strategic Organizational Culture Change Management Case Study

Strategic Organizational Culture Change Management - Case Study Example The final culture will be one in which everyone will focus on providing with error-free products and services according to the needs of the customer (Gregory H. Watson, 2007Page "Can it be said that Six Sigma is a culture" to which the obvious answer is "Yes." The reason is that Six Sigma is a concept-based metrics-driven, crisis-solving and project-tailored type of initiative. In addition Six Sigma connects performance to pay, has a proper vision, institutes a value, has distinct roles, is spread by way of knowledge transfer and calls for coaching by internal leaders. These are the reasons that make Six Sigma considerably control corporate culture (http://www. isixsigma.com/forum/ ask_dr_harry.aspToDo=view&questId=51&catId=9, retrieved 2nd October 2009). Gregory H. Watson, 2007, Strategic benchmarking reloaded with six sigma: improve your company's .., Jhon Wiley & sons Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey. http://www.isixsigma.com/forum/ask dr_harry.asp ToDo= view&questId=51&catId =9, retrieved 2nd October 2009.

International Business And Accounting Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

International Business And Accounting - Essay Example The consumers across the globe have expanded choices in terms of services and commodities available in the market. The international trade volumes have spurred economic growth and development in third world countries and this is reflected in terms of expanded business opportunities, increased employment and improved wages. The diversity in market structures, financial environment, cultural practices, consumer behavior, and industry trends present risks and challenges to international companies. Trading in goods and services in such conditions assume new complexities that can restrict the potential of growth and development (Evenett & Hoekman, 2006). Based on these observations, the paper provides an in-depth assessment of the implications and impacts of free-trade agreements from the differing perspectives of business, consumer, worker and society. The subsequent sections highlight the pros and cons of free trade agreements and how it impacts each section of the society and economic framework. Problem Identification and Analysis International trade and economic cooperation has been driven by government initiatives and international communities that frame their decisions on the inputs from private sector. Regional trade communities and bilateral trade agreements facilitate trade and investment through improved transparency, removal of non-tariff barriers, market liberalization policies, establishment of trading norms and standards, and improved bilateral understanding to support trading in services (ASEAN-China report, 2001). While globalization of economies and market liberalization practices have defined new opportunities for unrestricted trade and commerce between countries, regional trade... This essay stresses that global trade is beneficial for kinds of economies, whether developed or developing. Producers’ benefit from selling their goods in international markets generating higher revenues and consumers benefit from expanded choices of products available in the market. The international trade can help reduce poverty levels and erase income inequalities in developing economies promising improved standards of living. The international trade is regulated through a set of rules that the governments of the countries have created over the years. The poorer countries have restricted access to markets in developed countries due to the imposition of various trade barriers and agricultural subsidies. This paper makes a conclusion that markets have become more volatile as a result of global impacts and this has created the need for changing strategies in business operations and tactful government intervention to insulate the country’s economy from harmful economic effects. Monetary and fiscal policies are highly instrumental in regulating the country’s economy and creating market stability. The key strategic focus of governments while formulating trade agreements should be on eliminating trade disparities and establishment of norms that define quality of products and services delivered to the end consumers. The developed economy must focus on ensuring a fair trade practice that helps in reducing trade barriers and any form of economic exploitation.

Air Pollution Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Air Pollution - Research Paper Example Some developed countries have taken measures against the air pollution by making laws and policies and introducing green technologies. However, the rapid increase in industrialization has minimized the effect of these measures and millions of people are at risk by inhaling air containing harmful substances. Air pollution is a major problem in big industrial urban areas as compared to rural areas. Industrial, Vehicle and other types of smoke, CFCs and the greenhouse gasses are mixing up into the air that we inhale and the toxic substances in them act like slow poisons within our bodies (Gujrar, Molina and Ojha 1-14; Agarwal 1-6). We are focusing on the air pollution in general in first part of the paper and then specifically in United States. The top three greenest states and why are they called the green states will be discussed. Also the top three most polluted states and what are they doing to overcome the high level of pollutants in air will be discussed finally. Air pollution Acc ording to World Health Organization air pollution is â€Å"the contamination of the ecological system by any toxic chemical, physical or biological agent that alters the natural environment† (World Health Organization). ... Most common types of air pollutants are car emissions, chemical wastage from factories, dust, pollen, and mold spores. Pollutants can be classified into types: Primary pollutants and secondary pollutants. Primary Pollutants – are emissions discharged directly from a source. For example, volcanic eruptions or factory discharges (Gray). Secondary Pollutants- are formed as a consequence of reactions between primary pollutants and other substances found in the atmosphere for example Ozone that makes up smog (Gray). One of the most distinguishable characteristics of air pollutants is their transboundary nature that is they can travel to far and wide places away from their origins. The six major pollutants described by Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) are briefly discussed below (EPA; Gray): AIR POLLUTION IN UNITED STATES A study reports that more than 500,000 Americans die annually due to cardiopulmonary diseases caused by air pollution. In a recent economic study in Los Angel es Basin and San Joaquin valley of southern California it is shown that more than 3800 people face premature deaths annually (approx. 14 years earlier) because of the illegal amount of pollutants in the air. In 1948, Donora, Pennsylvania 20 died and more than 7000 were injured due to the worst ever smog disaster reported in U.S history (Peterman). The 1990 Clean Air Act (CAA) requires EPA to set National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for the conventional air toxics such as: Ozone, Particulate matter, Carbon Monoxide, Nitrogen Oxides, Sulfur dioxide and Lead. Out of which Ozone and Particulates are the biggest and primary threats. The act also enables EPA to restrict the emissions from chemical plants, utilities and steel mills. Through this act, the

Female Drill Sergeant Essay Example for Free

Female Drill Sergeant Essay Drill sergeant (DS) refers to the term that is used in United States military by the army, marine corps and air force. Becoming a drill sergeant can be through volunteering or by selection. The minimum status for attaining this state can only be at the rank of staff sergeant. Once a selected candidate, he/she should attend the Drill Sergeant School where he/she undergoes training on various aspects of the drill sergeant position. The historical start up of drill sergeant was in 1962. This followed a directive by the secretary of the army to his secretary who was Stephen Ailes to prompt a survey conduct of the recruiting process of the army corps. This survey took some long time and included surveys from the Air Force, Marine and the Navy training techniques. Various faults were found in the recruitment process and thus led to the position of the drill sergeant. The basic distinguishing feature for the drill sergeants was their hats. (http://www. jackson. army. mil/DSS/headgear. htm) However, since its inception in 1962, the position was not held by a female until 1972 where female drill sergeants were pronounced recruited and even given different hats than those held by their male counterparts. The design of their hat was done by Mildered C. Bailey who was a brigadier general. Beige was the first female drill sergeant hat though it was later replaced with one of dark green in 1983. Between 1984 and 1985, a proposal was made for an official switch by the female drill sergeants in having the same hat to what was owned by the male drill sergeants. On the same point, a larger group of female drill sergeants who were at TRAining and DOctrine Command (TRADOC) unit leveraged great opposition to the proposal. It was reciprocated by the Army Chief of Staff that the female drill sergeants were to continue in wearing the same female drill sergeant hats that they used to wear. The female drill sergeant started in the late of 1971 when the continental army commandant received an official approval as permission from the army chief of staff to propagate inclusion of females in the drill sergeant state program. Starting in the February of 1972, the program saw promotion of six female non-commissioned officers in the program. They underwent thorough training after which they were given the mandate of their positions as female drill sergeants. In the United States, the female drill sergeant refers to a non-commissioned officer within the armed forces. She has the duty of participating in the initiation of the recruitment process of new recruits who enters the military. In the recruitment process the sergeant is supposed to follow the legal provisions and jurisdictions of the practices and customs of the military forces. The inclusion of the female drill sergeants in the army since 1971 was a significance factor that helped in shaping the nature of the army. Equality was signified after breaking the traditions that ignored females in the position of drill sergeants. (http://www. armystudyguide. com/content/Drill_Sergeant_Resources/drill_sergeant_information/female-campaign-hat. shtml) Like the male drill sergeants, a female drill sergeant is usually held responsible in the behavior, military education and warfare of the army recruits assigned to her. She is therefore supposed to provide full support during the initial period of the training process. They are paused with various responsibilities of ensuring physical training, weapons training and the military discipline. Their service delivery and the protocols to follow while at their service delivery is guided by the drill sergeant creed which they should follow. Generally, this is a guiding formula towards their capacities. The three levels of the army, that is the marine, air force and army have different sets of such a creed though their intention is made to serve and secure almost the same set of guidelines for the female drill sergeants. Conceptually, female drill sergeants at the three levels of the military army are also subject to different duties and different training requirements. Due to the different requirements of these military professional levels the training needs and the roles of the female drill sergeant has been different. However, the general role across the board for all levels for these female drill sergeants has been to monitor the training process of the new recruits and guiding of such training needs. (http://www. wood. army. mil/mncoa/dss/history. htm) Since the provision of female drill sergeants in 1971, the position of female drill sergeants have been legally constituted and especially with the growing demand for army professionals. However, the position has always been competitively bided and requires both physical and academic competencies. The number of the current female drill sergeants has been seen to increasingly expand and giving more opportunity for the female participation in the position. The currently changing social structures and need for human security has endorsed a credited place for the female drill sergeant. The current military environment has even mandated her with supervisory and command powers at her capacity for those she is training. Therefore, historical provision that allowed only male drill sergeants was disregarded in 1971 after visualizing the productive capacity that women could play in the military. Elsewhere, the growing demand of equal employment opportunity was significant for this change. Currently, female drill sergeants continue to enjoy equal opportunities like their male colleagues in their position. Reference History of Drill Sergeant. Retrieved on 25th August 2008 from http://www. wood. army. mil/mncoa/dss/history. htm Female Drill Sergeant Campaign Hat. Retrieved on 25th August 2008 from http://www. armystudyguide. com/content/Drill_Sergeant_Resources/drill_sergeant_information/female-campaign-hat. shtml Drill Sergeant School. Retrieved on 25th August 2008 from http://www. jackson. army. mil/DSS/headgear. htm

Urbanization in Pakistan

Urbanization in Pakistan ABSTRACT The research reported in this thesis was on Urbanization and Determinants of Urbanization in Pakistan The main purpose of the research was to study the factors and determinants of urbanization causing the problem of urbanization in Pakistan. The secondary data was collected by referring to the literature available in the libraries and the internet. Primary data was collected by floating a questionnaire among the general public asking questions regarding the problem of Urbanization in Pakistan. Moreover, interviews were taken to get a better understanding of the research subject. SPSS software was applied to analyze the data collected from the questionnaire for frequencies and cross tabulations were run to interpret the data by using the principles of Statistics. The findings suggested that migration, net-reclassification and net natural increase were the major factors causing urbanization in Pakistan. Trend of Urbanization in Pakistan have been increasing over the past years due to a n increase in the migration rate, mergers of small towns into big cities and an excess of birth rates of death rates which causes population increase and an increase in the living population of the big cities. It was suggested that government should make proper plans and policies to avoid this problem of Urbanization as for a developing nation Urbanization can become a serious problem. CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Overview of the Topic Urbanization is the expansion of cities by the rise in total number of population. Urbanization is caused by the social, economic demographic aspects, which include internal migration, mergers of adjoining areas in the city and by the excess of birth rates over death rates. Internal migration is caused due to the attractive opportunities city life has to offer to the rural people along with better living standards and better wages. Migration cannot be controlled as by the law every citizen of the country is free to move and live where ever he wants. Second important factor causing urbanization is net reclassification that is, mergers of adjoining towns and villages into big cities. Cities of Pakistan have expanded in terms of their size and population over the past 50 years. This merger allows small towns and villages to excel and enjoy the facilities of city life but in return it brings a negative impact on the quality of essential public services such as law and order, health, edu cation, water energy supplies etc. as they earlier had been designed according to the population living within the city boundaries. This factor leads to un-regulated expansion of urban areas which cause social, economic and administrative problems. Third major factor causing urbanization is the net natural increase, increase in birth rates over death rates. Advancement in medicine and health technology leads to an increase in the life span of an average person and reduces the infant mortality rate, which brings a rise in the population if the country. According to the 1998 census, in Pakistan level of urbanization has grown from 17.5% in 1951 to 32.5% in 1998. The trend of urbanization is increasing over the past years in Pakistan. Now in Pakistan rural population is moving towards big cities due to the decreasing dependency rate on the agricultural sector. Females from the rural areas also are moving towards the big cities to get work in the informal sector. Lack of basic necessiti es such as, food, energy, education and health in the rural areas of Pakistan force people to shift to big cities bringing an effect on the economy in a negative way. Lack of improper city boundaries also allow adjoining slums and small towns to merge in with the big cities causing Urbanization in Pakistan. Small and medium sized cities of Pakistan are growing at a higher rate and are serving as hubs of business and trade. Growth in commerce and industry and better cultivation methods also lead people to shift to urban centers. Urbanization is a serious problem which needs to be controlled especially in a developing country like Pakistan where inflation rates are high, people live below poverty line, wages are less and political instability exists. It can cause infrastructure deficit, increase urban poverty unemployment, lead to scarce resources and cause further political imbalance. 1.2 Background of the Topic Pakistan was formed as a result of religious and cultural differences present in the sub-continent. These differences led to the migration among the two nations causing an uneven distribution of people as well as resources. In the initial years after independence government faced a lot of trouble in allocating resources among the cities and villages according to the total population living. A large number of refugees settled in the big cities because they had no shelter and food to migrate in the rural areas. From 1951-1962 urbanization in the East and West Pakistan experienced the same urban growth rate. Later West Pakistan saw an increase in the urban growth rate as people migrated to the two big cities of the West Karachi and Lahore in search of better job opportunities and adjoining towns merged with the big cities in order to avail the facilities cities had to offer such as electricity, gas energy. These two were the biggest cities where all the political, economic and social ac tivities used to take place. Industrialization in the latter years attracted people from the rural centers to obtain a better lifestyle. Only a small number of refugees made their way to the rural areas where no special development had taken place. In 1981-1998 urban growth declined due to the deteriorating law and order situation. Political instability, partition of East Pakistan was the main reasons for this decline. Urbanization in Pakistan has been taking place since independence. Refugees caused urban growth in the early years, in later years search for better job opportunities and independence from landlords made people migrate to big cities. Lack of governments policies in developing the rural areas of Pakistan also lead to this shift and lack of proper family planning lead to population increase and improper city boundaries extend the size of the big cities which cause urbanization. Decrease in the agricultural sector over the years have also led to an increase in the urban growth as now people seek jobs in the industrial sector rather than the agricultural side. 1.3 Importance of the Study With Respect To the World Urbanization is an emerging economic problem as the increase in large cities is not equal to the facilities available for the citizens. Overcrowding in large cities is causing different problems which are difficult to handle by the political parties. Especially for a developing nation expansion of big cities related to the facilities available is a serious problem which needs attention. Urbanization is increasing at an alarming rate in the developing nations these days. Urban population increase in developing countries is double that experienced in the West years ago. Developing nations are less industrialized as compared to the Developed countries; therefore people from rural areas migrate to the urban cities in search for better wage rates. The extent of poverty in the rural areas of the developing nations is negative, which is another factor causing migration. Existence of primate cities in developing nations brings an increase in the population of these cities. In developing and under developed nations urban growth rate is relatively high than developed nations as rural poverty and its causes such as no stable earning patterns, drought low human capital make people to migrate to big cities in search of better quality of life. Urbanization has been increasing in the world due to the large difference in income and lifestyle between rural and urban cities.. Greater emphasis laid down on the industrial sector by the government is also a big reason why inhabitants or rural areas leave their jobs in the agricultural sector and shift to the industrial sector. Some economists believe that city growth is a symbol of development of any nation as it leads to technological and industrial advancement. But most researchers believe that urbanization is a serious problem which needs to be taken into account immediately. Urbanization needs to be controlled as it can become a serious threat to the economy of any nation especially the developing ones as, they are indulged in other problems at the same time. It can also cause a problem to the people already living in the urban areas along with the people migrating to these areas. The Government has to take steps and regulate urban-rural migration to control the problem of urbanization 1.4 Importance of Study With Respect To Pakistan Urbanization is a serious problem faced by Pakistan these days. Urbanization in the early years was caused due to the problem of refugees after independence. Industrialization later made people shift to cities in search for better jobs and wage rates. Due to the existence of new technology and better health facilities the rate of births over deaths is high in Pakistan. The poor standard of living in the rural areas make people migrate to big cities to get the basic necessities of life. Mergers of adjoining towns into big cities formally transform the rural areas into urban centers. Over the years there has been an increase in the size of Pakistans top ten big cities, areas which were considered small now have been included in the premises of the big cities. Trend of urbanization in Pakistan is going up on an increasing rate. The rural population is expected to be equal to the urban population by the year 2030. Now female labor force participation is also causing urbanization as women from the rural areas are stepping ahead to work in the cities in the informal sector. In Pakistan the main factors causing rural out migration are unequal distribution of resources, lack of basic necessities and poverty. Government over the years has not been successful in implementing positive policies to stop rural out migration by developing the rural areas. The wide gap between the income distribution patterns in the rural urban areas lead to class conflicts which results in migrations causing violent activities. Moreover the mergers of small towns and slum into big cities also give rise to such problems like income disparities and class conflicts. Rapid increase in the size of the city leads to a deterioration in the quality of essential public services, such as, law and order/police, health, education, road works, water supplies, energy supplies etc., this expansions leads to economic, social and administrative problems. The population growth is unevenly distributed in the fo ur provinces and the population of the 10 big cities is increasing over the years which need to be controlled as it is the root cause for the process of urbanization. Pakistani government should take into account some policies to control the problem of urbanization which is a hurdle in the process of development. If this problem is now controlled immediately Pakistan can face numerous challenges in the near future which will be difficult to control then. 1.5 Research Question Urbanization Determinants of Urbanization in Pakistan The scope of the study is why urbanization takes place, what are the various components which give rise to the problem of urbanization. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW Arif and Hamid (2009) examined the trends in urbanization, city growth and womens share in rural to urban migration. This study was a joint project of UNFPA and PIDE; financed by UNFPA. Growth of cities is a common practice in the developing nations, including Pakistan. The basic objective of their research was to examine the level of urbanization and urban growth of Pakistan, to analyze the role of migration in the expansion of cities and to over view the quality of life of female immigrants who have moved to big cities in search of better job opportunities for their families. This paper has used both qualitative and quantitative approaches to work on the said objectives. They have used data from previous censuses and information from existing literature. This study has further used both the 2001 Pakistan Socio-Economic Survey (PSES) and Pakistan Rural Household Survey (PRHS) done by the Pakistan Institute of Development Economics to study the share of female in rural-urban migratio n. The quality of life is examined by talking a sample of 50 women and interviewing them about their decisions which led them to the migration. According to the 1998 census, level of urbanization has grown from 17.5% in 1951 to 32.5% in 1998. The nature of urbanization is different in the four provinces. More than 60% of the population of Sindh lives in Karachi, 22% of the total population of Punjab lives in Lahore and other 5 big cities of Punjab, capital of NWFP, Peshawar constitutes of 33% of urban provincial population and the share of Quetta, the capital of Baluchistan is 37%. Arif and Hamid say that there are 3 major components of urban population growth, which include Net-natural increase (increase in the birth rates over death rates due to the growth and improvement in the medical sector). Second component is the rural-urban migration, which is caused due to the attraction and opportunities the big cities have to offer to the rural population, the migration in urban growth w as 20.1% in 1972-81 and 1981-98. The migration across provinces is also found in Pakistan. Third component is the Net-Reclassification (the mergers of adjoin areas into big cities). Medium and small cities of Pakistan have outgrown in terms of development over the past 50 years which have led to the increase in size by area of the big cities. Women comprise of a significant figure in the rural urban migration. Permanent migrant women move to urban centers in search for a better quality life for themselves and their children. The second type of migrant women includes those who shift to the city for a temporary time, to obtain full high quality education. Research says that permanent women migrate due to the economic crisis, lack of job opportunities and due to the domestic violence by husband and his family. The main findings of the qualitative research done by interviews of women who have shifted to the big cities reveal that low quality of life, in security in terms of their childr ens future, low mentality of their husbands and the feeling of being independent motivated them to migrate. Further the findings of this overall study reveal that due to a fall in the agricultural sector, the rural population is shifting to the big cities, leading to urban growth. Pakistans projected urban population is said to be equal to its rural population by 2030, when one out of every two person will be a resident of the big city. Farooq and Mateen (2005) conducted a study whose main objective was to study and explore the correlation about the socio-economic status and the determinants of internal migration by probit estimation technique. Their research was conducted in Faisalabad city and four tehsils of Faisalabad. Probit model was used to test the hypothesis of their study, the first one being that the poorer economic conditions of the rural areas lead to more rural out migration. This test showed that 35-50% of the respondents migrated to big cities due to low levels of income, poor economic opportunities and poor quality of life. Land holding is considered as an important economic opportunity in the rural sector of Pakistan. The aspect of the rural economic opportunity hypothesis states that land holdings is an important determinant in the rural urban migration. The negative land holdings show that migration is most possible when people have small land holdings as compared to people who own land more than 13 acres, who do not think of shifting to other big cities. Another hypothesis tested by Farooq and Mateen was that the higher the rate of poverty reduction among the migrants families in the rural sector the greater will be individual migration. The result shown against this hypothesis was that people from rural areas migrate mostly because they get attracted to the economic opportunities cities have to offer. Individual migrants who had left their rural areas leaving their families behind have improved their household income by sending remittances which in return reduces their poverty level. Probit model shows that rural out shift is directly linked with the objective of poverty reduction in the urban as well as rural communities. The findings say that unequal distribution of resources, usually land, and poverty leads to rural out migration. Dao (2002) conducted a study to explain the differences in the urbanization growth rates of the developing nations. He argues that the difference in the actual levels of income between rural urban areas is responsible for the process of migration. He chose to use the ratio of agricultural value added per worker to GDP per capita as a proxy variable for rural wages and assumed that urban wages do not vary due to the influence of politically motivated factors such as minimum wage legislation, labor unions etc. He also hypothesize that a countrys development factors, rate of population growth, poverty, agricultural density all such factors affect the urbanization growth. Empirical tests applied on 3 developing countries showed that agricultural value added per worker relative to per capita GDP is moderately significant in explaining the changes in urbanization growth rates which means that higher agricultural values given per worker does keep rural workers away from the thought of migra ting. Development factors such as long constructed roads divided by land area have a positive impact on the urbanization growth rate; increase in population also has a direct effect on the urban growth rate. Impact of population density in agricultural areas does not explain the urbanization growth rates and the effect of the extent of poverty in rural centers on urbanization growth is negative. Satterwaite (2010) studied the reasons behind the lack and incomplete data available on the urban populations for many under-developed and developing nations and how this incomplete data effects future policies and makes international comparisons difficult. The study says that every nation has its own definition of urbanization and its own ways of conducting a population census. Official definitions say that a city comprising of 20,000 or more inhabitants is an urban city. But if this definition is applied to the developing nations the worlds level of urbanization may change by several points. As a large proportion of such cities live in the rural, underdeveloped areas. Moreover the study tells us that city boundaries are not set according to the universally agreed criteria but are set by the local and national bodies and change over time. Statistics used to judge the environmental performance of the large cities are greatly influenced by the adjoining areas which affects the city bo undaries. In many nations census is done after ten years and in most nations census are not done in the past 15 years as, censuses are seen as expensive. Satterwaite says that difference in data regarding the urbanization rates of many countries makes the task of making urbanization control policies a difficult task. Kasarda and Crenshaw (1991) studied the third world urbanization and its determinants and dimensions. They say that third world countries are facing an urban explosion which is somewhat like that faced by the West a century ago, the urban growth faced by the third world nations is double the growth faced by the West. Urbanization problem acts as a barrier in the development phase of the third world countries. Developing nations face a problem of over urbanization which is the increase in the countrys population as compared to the economic activities. Developing nations also face the problem of Urban Primacy which is all political, social, economic activities take place in one big city of the nation which in return attracts people from the rural sector. The existence of improper city boundaries also makes third world countries more underdeveloped and acts as a constraint to future development. Migration in these countries takes place at an increasing rate due to the attractions the bi g cities have to offer. Moreover the increase in the birth rates over death rates due to the advancement in the medical sector has increased the population which affects the rate of Urbanization. The wage difference and job opportunities also affect the decision of rural urban migration, as the wage rates in the rural sector are much low as compared to the urban sector. The housing facilities provided in the big cities of the third world nations are much better than those in the rural areas. The housing facilities provided in the rural areas of the third world countries are far less below than the criteria stated by the UNO. Jan, Iqbal and Ifthikharuddin (2008) conducted a study in ten most populous cities of Pakistan to study the trend and growth of urbanization in these big cities and their provinces. They say that province wise distribution of the rural urban population and its projections are important to make forecasts about the future. They have used the weighted matrix approach to make population projections. Sindh province currently has the highest proportion of urban population which is expected to increase by 12% by 2030; Punjab whose current population urbanized is 31.267% is expected to be 50.07% by 2030. The projected urbanization rate of NWFP is 41.36% by 2030 with an increase of approx. 24%. The projected urban percentage of Baluchistan is 45.56% by 2030 showing a rise of 22%. The findings say that the urban population is unevenly distributed in the four provinces. The population growth of the ten big cities is increasing over the past decade which is the gem cause of the problem of urbani zation and it should be quickly handled. CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY Research Type My research type is quantitative research as a questionnaire was used to collect the data and then it was coded and was formed into a more statistical version Data Type and Research Period Research is based on primary data as a questionnaire was floated to collect data. This is because there is no prior data available on the subject matter; hence the questionnaire provided with sufficient material to conduct the research. Sources of Data A questionnaire was floated asking general questions regarding the relationship of the dependent variable with the independent ones Theoretical Framework Related Definitions Variables Urbanization A process in which an increasing proportion of an entire population lives in cities or suburbs of cities, areas of population dense enough that residents cannot grow their own food (www.pbs.org/wgbh/rxforsurvival/glossary.html) Over Urbanization Excessive growth of a countrys urban population relative to economic growth Urban Growth Refers to the rise in the increasing population living in urban areas (Jones 1991) Migration Shifting of people from small villages to big cities in search of better life style and job opportunity Urban Built-up and populated area that includes a municipality and, generally, has a population of 5000 or more (http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/urban.html) Rural Rural population includes persons living in the open country or in towns of less than 2,500 people. It is subdivided in the rural farm population which comprises all rural residents living on farms, and the rural non-farm population which includes the remaining rural population (www.mnforsustain.org/rockefeller_1972_glossary.htm) Push factors Factors responsible for shifting people from rural to urban cities Pull factors Factors responsible for attracting rural population to the urban centers Net-Reclassification Merger of adjoining areas into big cities due to lack of proper city boundaries and the development of these adjoining areas Net-Natural Increase The increase in birth rates over death rates due to better health facilities and rise in population Population, Working Population and Planned Sample My sample included the population of Lahore, with a sample size of 50 people. It included people from all spheres of life who had recently migrated to big cities and the people living in adjoining areas of Lahore. People above the age of 25 were capable of filling out my questionnaire Research Hypothesis Ho: Migration is an important factor in the process of urbanization and it has an effect on the countrys economy H1: Migration is not an important factor in the process of urbanization and it does not affect the countrys economy Ho: Lack of city boundaries lead to the annexure of adjoining small towns into big cities which in return increase the living urban population giving rise to urbanization H1: Lack of city boundaries do not lead to the annexure of adjoining small towns into big cities which in return increase the living urban population giving rise to urbanization Ho: Availability of better health facilities in urban cities brings excess of birth rates over death rates H1: Availability of better health facilities in urban cities do not bring any change in the birth and death rates Ho: High rates of poverty poor economic conditions in the rural areas lead to rural out migration H1: High rates of poverty poor economic conditions in the rural areas does not lead to rural out migration Ho: Uncheck urbanization leads to economic, social and administrative problems H1: Uncheck urbanization leads to economic, social and administrative problems Ho: Lack of government policies and plans have led to an increase in urbanization H1: Lack of government policies and plans have led to a decrease in urbanization Techniques After the questionnaire was filled and coding was done, cross tabulations were run to analyze the relationship of the independent variables with the dependent one. Data Analysis The statistical software which was used was SPSS. Cross tabulations to interpret the results gathered by the questionnaire. It provided me with frequency tables to get a better understanding of the collected data. Data interpretation Based on the current analysis the main aim was to understand which variable was the major factor causing urbanization. CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS 4.1 Results Analysis Migration Do you think migration is a serious factor in the process of urbanization? Do you think Migration has a serious effect on the economy of Pakistan in a negative way? Ho: Migration is an important factor in the process of urbanization and it has an effect on the countrys economy H1: Migration is not an important factor in the process of urbanization and it does not affect the countrys economy This cross tabulation talks about migration being an important factor in the process of urbanization and affecting a states economy in a negative way. 20 people agree to the fact that migration causes an urbanization which affects the economy of the country. 29 people agreed and said that migration is a major cause in the urbanization problem. 12 people disagree and believe that migration do not have an effect on the countrys economy in a negative way. Total 7 people stay neutral and are of the view that migration is not a key factor in the process of urbanization. Therefore, we accept our null hypothesis as a majority agrees to the fact that urbanization is caused by migration which has a negative impact on the economy. Net Reclassification Do you think lack of city boundaries is a major cause for urbanization? Do you think that there should be a limit on the size of a city? Ho: Lack of city boundaries lead to the annexure of adjoining small towns into big cities which in return increase the living urban population giving rise to urbanization H1: Lack of city boundaries do not lead to the annexure of adjoining small towns into big cities which in return increase the living urban population giving rise to urbanization This cross tabulation talks about lack of city boundaries, and their role in the process of urbanization. 16 people stayed neutral when asked if they considered mergers of small towns and villages a factor in the process of urbanization. 15 people believed that the problem of urbanization was caused due to the annexure of small villages and towns into big cites. However, 14 people disagreed and said that they did not consider this merger to be a factor in the problem of urbanization rather this merger gave the opportunity to the people living in such poor areas to excel, bringing a positive effect on the economy. 16 people agreed that a limit should be set by the government or local authorities to the city boundaries. Whereas, 11 people disagreed in setting up a city boundary. Thus, we accept our hypotheses as more people agree to the fact that mergers of adjoining towns and slums do cause urbanization and a limit should be set in the city size. Net Natural Increase Do you consider the increase in birth rates over death rates a cause for the problem of urbanization? Do you believe that an increase in the population size of Pakistan is a source of the countrys problems? Ho: Availability of better health facilities in urban cities brings excess of birth rates over death rates H1: Availability of better health facilities in urban cities do not bring any change in the birth and death rates This cross tabulation discusses whether increase in population is a source of countrys problems and this increase is due to the excess of birth rates over death rates. 22 people strongly agreed that the population increase in Pakistan is a big source of the countrys problems. 8 people disagreed on the fact that population increase had to do anything with the countrys problems. 20 people said that an excess of birth rates over death rates was a factor in the process of urbanization, as urbanization means expansion of cities, which in this situation is done by an increase in birth rates. 14 people stayed neutral and said they somehow agreed and disagreed to the fact that the excess of births over deaths is a factor of urbanization. So, we accept our null hypothesis as more people believe population to be a source of a countrys problems and think that the excess of birth rates over death rates allow the cities to expand causing the problem of urbanization. 4.2 Frequency Tables Q3) Does Poverty act as a major tool in the process of migration? 30 respondents agreed to the fact that poverty is a major factor which causes rural out migration which leads to urbanization. Q4) Better Lifestyles, health and education facilities, life security, independence attract the rural population towards the urban centers, do you agree? 20 respondents agreed and 19 strongly agreed that better standard of living in the urban centers attracts the rural population which makes them migrate. Q5) Do you think people in u

Australia :: essays research papers

Australia Most Australians are governed by three levels of government - local, state and federal. For instance, a family living in Sydney would have the Sydney City Council (local) looking after such things as garbage collection, park maintenance and dog controls. Australians pay their local government by paying "rates" - paid according to the area and position of any land that you own. They would then be governed by the New South Wales Government, which would look after such things as roads, and the police force. Finally, they are governed by the Australian (Federal) Government, which is involved with trade, foreign affairs and the national treasury. Both the State and Federal Governments are paid through income tax. Australian governments at a State and Federal level are run according to the Westminster System, used in England. This means that there are two houses of Parliament, a lower house (The House Of Representatives) and an upper house (The Senate). Decisions put forward and approved in the House of Representatives must then be approved a second time by the Senate. The only exception to this is the Queensland Government, which has only a House of Representatives. Local governments are stationed in centre of the town or city that they provide to. State governments are run from the state capitals, while the Federal Government sits in Canberra, in the Australian Capital Territory. There are six states, and two major territories in Australia. The states are: Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia and Western Australia. The two territories are the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory. Australia also has a number of areas run by the Federal Government (dependent areas). These include the Ashmore and Cartier Islands, Christmas Island, the Cocos (Keeling) Islands, the Coral Sea Islands, Heard Island, the McDonald Islands and Norfolk Island. Britain originally ruled Australia as a penal colony after it was discovery in 1788. However, on January 1st, 1901, Australia's six states were unified ("federated") into one nation, formally known (and still known) as the

The Great Gatsby :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Great Gatsby is written by F. Scott Fitzgerald. Nick Carraway is a neutral character and narrates this novel. He witnesses most of the interactions between the characters, yet states only what happens and not just his opinion. Nick moves from the mid-west to Long Island. Jay Gatsby lives next door to Nick in the East Egg. He lives in a mansion, which he bought with the money he made by being involved in organized crime. He lives across from Tom and Daisy. Daisy used to go out with Jay but she broke up with him because he could not support her lifestyle. While Tom is having an affair with another woman, Myrtle, Jay and Daisy have one. Tom gets bored with his affair and decides to stop Jay and Daisy’s. While Tom and Daisy are driving in car, Daisy hits Myrtle, yet Tom says it was Jay. Myrtle’s husband gets furious, kills Jay and then himself. Fitzgerald uses this book to tell Americans not to try to make dreams reality by corruption. To gain money by illegal sources is not the way to achieve the â€Å"American Dream†. Nick lives next to a mansion, which belongs to Jay Gatsby and becomes friends with him. Jay turns out to still like Daisy, who is Nick’s second cousin. Before Jay was sent to the army, he and Daisy were together. Yet because of Jay’s lack of money, Daisy broke up with him. Through his friend Meyer Wolfsheim, who fixed the World Series in 1919 and involved in organized crime, he gained his fortune. When he returned, Daisy had already been married to another wealthy person, Tom Buchanan. Nick arranges for the two of them to meet, and they have an affair. Tom, who is also having an affair with a married woman, Myrtle, confronts Daisy and Jay, and Daisy is forced to return to Tom. As Daisy and Gatsby are driving, they run over and kill Myrtle Wilson, Tom’s mistress. Tom lies to Mr. Wilson, and tells him that Gatsby was the driver, when actually, Daisy was driving. Wilson shoots Gatsby at his home afterwards and then commits suicide. Nick is disappointed with the life , which he planned for in New York and decides to go back to his hometown in the mid-west. The Great Gatsby took place during the Roaring Twenty’s. Nick graduated from New Haven in 1915 and â€Å"I came East, permanently, I thought, in the spring of twenty-two.

The Minister’s Black Veil :: Literary Analysis, Hawthorne

In the short story, â€Å"The Minister’s Black Veil,† Nathaniel Hawthorne tells the Mr. Hooper’s black veil and the words that can describe between him and the veil. Hawthorne demonstrates how a black veil can describe as many words. Through the story, Hawthorne introduces the reader to Mr. Hooper, a parson in Milford meeting-house and a gentlemanly person, who wears a black veil. Therefore, Mr. Hooper rejects from his finance and his people, because they ask him to move the veil, but he does not want to do it. In Nathaniel Hawthorne’s â€Å"The Minister’s Black Veil†, Mr. Hooper’s black veil symbolizes sins, darkness, and secrecy in order to determine sins that he cannot tell to anyone, darkness around his face and neighbors, and secrecy about the black veil. From the beginning of the story, Mr. Hooper comes out wearing a black veil, which represents sins that he cannot tell to anyone. Swathed about his forehead, and hanging down over his face, Mr. Hooper has on a black veil. Elizabeth urged, â€Å"Beloved and respected as you are, there may be whispers that you hid your face under the consciousness of secret sin† (Hawthorne 269). His fiancà © says that in the black veil there may be has a consciousness of secret sin. Also, he is a parson in Milford meeting-house and a gentlemanly person, so without the veil, Hooper would be a just typical minister, â€Å"guilty of the typical sins of every human, but holier than most† (Boone par.7). He would be a typical minister who is guilty of the typical sins of every human without the black veil. Also, Boone said, â€Å"If he confesses his sin, the community can occur† (Boone par.16). If he confesses his sin about the black veil, all of the neighbors will hate him. Last, he sai d, â€Å"so, the veil is a saying: it is constantly signifying, constantly speaking to the people of the possibility of Hooper’s sin† (Boone par.11). Mr. Hooper’s veil says that he is trying to not tell the sins about the black veil. In conclusion, every people have sins that cannot tell to anyone like Mr. Hooper. Next, the minister’s black veil symbolizes darkness around his face and neighbors. His frame shuddered; his lips grew white, and rushed forth into the darkness. He said, â€Å"Know, then, this veil is a type and a symbol, and I am bound to wear it ever, both in light and darkness, in solitude and before the gaze of multitudes, and as with strangers, so with my familiar friends† In this light and darkness black veil, he is bound to wear it ever. The Minister’s Black Veil :: Literary Analysis, Hawthorne In the short story, â€Å"The Minister’s Black Veil,† Nathaniel Hawthorne tells the Mr. Hooper’s black veil and the words that can describe between him and the veil. Hawthorne demonstrates how a black veil can describe as many words. Through the story, Hawthorne introduces the reader to Mr. Hooper, a parson in Milford meeting-house and a gentlemanly person, who wears a black veil. Therefore, Mr. Hooper rejects from his finance and his people, because they ask him to move the veil, but he does not want to do it. In Nathaniel Hawthorne’s â€Å"The Minister’s Black Veil†, Mr. Hooper’s black veil symbolizes sins, darkness, and secrecy in order to determine sins that he cannot tell to anyone, darkness around his face and neighbors, and secrecy about the black veil. From the beginning of the story, Mr. Hooper comes out wearing a black veil, which represents sins that he cannot tell to anyone. Swathed about his forehead, and hanging down over his face, Mr. Hooper has on a black veil. Elizabeth urged, â€Å"Beloved and respected as you are, there may be whispers that you hid your face under the consciousness of secret sin† (Hawthorne 269). His fiancà © says that in the black veil there may be has a consciousness of secret sin. Also, he is a parson in Milford meeting-house and a gentlemanly person, so without the veil, Hooper would be a just typical minister, â€Å"guilty of the typical sins of every human, but holier than most† (Boone par.7). He would be a typical minister who is guilty of the typical sins of every human without the black veil. Also, Boone said, â€Å"If he confesses his sin, the community can occur† (Boone par.16). If he confesses his sin about the black veil, all of the neighbors will hate him. Last, he sai d, â€Å"so, the veil is a saying: it is constantly signifying, constantly speaking to the people of the possibility of Hooper’s sin† (Boone par.11). Mr. Hooper’s veil says that he is trying to not tell the sins about the black veil. In conclusion, every people have sins that cannot tell to anyone like Mr. Hooper. Next, the minister’s black veil symbolizes darkness around his face and neighbors. His frame shuddered; his lips grew white, and rushed forth into the darkness. He said, â€Å"Know, then, this veil is a type and a symbol, and I am bound to wear it ever, both in light and darkness, in solitude and before the gaze of multitudes, and as with strangers, so with my familiar friends† In this light and darkness black veil, he is bound to wear it ever. The Minister’s Black Veil :: Literary Analysis, Hawthorne In the short story, â€Å"The Minister’s Black Veil,† Nathaniel Hawthorne tells the Mr. Hooper’s black veil and the words that can describe between him and the veil. Hawthorne demonstrates how a black veil can describe as many words. Through the story, Hawthorne introduces the reader to Mr. Hooper, a parson in Milford meeting-house and a gentlemanly person, who wears a black veil. Therefore, Mr. Hooper rejects from his finance and his people, because they ask him to move the veil, but he does not want to do it. In Nathaniel Hawthorne’s â€Å"The Minister’s Black Veil†, Mr. Hooper’s black veil symbolizes sins, darkness, and secrecy in order to determine sins that he cannot tell to anyone, darkness around his face and neighbors, and secrecy about the black veil. From the beginning of the story, Mr. Hooper comes out wearing a black veil, which represents sins that he cannot tell to anyone. Swathed about his forehead, and hanging down over his face, Mr. Hooper has on a black veil. Elizabeth urged, â€Å"Beloved and respected as you are, there may be whispers that you hid your face under the consciousness of secret sin† (Hawthorne 269). His fiancà © says that in the black veil there may be has a consciousness of secret sin. Also, he is a parson in Milford meeting-house and a gentlemanly person, so without the veil, Hooper would be a just typical minister, â€Å"guilty of the typical sins of every human, but holier than most† (Boone par.7). He would be a typical minister who is guilty of the typical sins of every human without the black veil. Also, Boone said, â€Å"If he confesses his sin, the community can occur† (Boone par.16). If he confesses his sin about the black veil, all of the neighbors will hate him. Last, he sai d, â€Å"so, the veil is a saying: it is constantly signifying, constantly speaking to the people of the possibility of Hooper’s sin† (Boone par.11). Mr. Hooper’s veil says that he is trying to not tell the sins about the black veil. In conclusion, every people have sins that cannot tell to anyone like Mr. Hooper. Next, the minister’s black veil symbolizes darkness around his face and neighbors. His frame shuddered; his lips grew white, and rushed forth into the darkness. He said, â€Å"Know, then, this veil is a type and a symbol, and I am bound to wear it ever, both in light and darkness, in solitude and before the gaze of multitudes, and as with strangers, so with my familiar friends† In this light and darkness black veil, he is bound to wear it ever.

Poems From Other Cultures- John Agard and Sujata Bhatt Essay

Search for My Tongue by Sujata Bhatt and Half-Caste by John Agard, are poems that both explain the struggles of living with mixed heritages and being split between the two. They both express there opinion in different ways, Bhatt using symbolism and Agard using confrontational speech and metaphors. Agard’s poem portrays the racist connotations associated with the word Half-caste and he effectively puts across his true feelings on the subject. Agard was born in Guyana and like most Caribbean people Agard is bi-racial, being born of a white Portuguese mother and a black Caribbean father. Consequently, Agard is going to be dealing with several issues as he has to live between two languages, three cultures, and living in a country that comfortably uses words such as ‘half-caste’ without thinking about the negative undertones that can dampen his spirit and pride in being of duel-heritage. Similarly, Bhatt writes about her struggle of living between two cultures, but unlike Agard she is of one race, Indian. Bhatt and her family moved to the West when Bhatt was still young and there she learned English in addition to her first language, Guajarati. Bhatt’s poem explains the difficulty of having two languages, the fear of looses a native language when living abroad, and ultimately suggests that language is the centre of an identity. She does, however, comes to the conclusion that even though you may not speak your mother tongue on a regular, day-to-day basis it will always be with you and that you cannot loose who you are. Agard presents his words in a unique and abrupt method. He puts his poem into five stanzas that vary in length; this could be so it sounds like someone talking not a verse, showing that he wanted the fluidity of the poem to feel real, and not rehearsed. He also flaunts his poem by using short lines, â€Å"explain yuself† to maybe be abrupt and direct, giving his poem a confrontational feel but he also may do this as a symbolic gesture as he only has ‘half’ a line, half a self, half a human. By doing this he is challenging the term half-cast and highlighting its negative impact and connotations, he is also exploiting it and making the term seem ridiculous. Conversely, Bhatt presents her poem as one long stanza and has written it by using longer lines. It is written with fluidity, and ease, this is because she wanted the two languages, Guajarati and English, to mesh into one and almost become one language. By structuring the poem and putting the Guajarati in the middle of the poem this shows that it is the focal point of her life, and is in the middle of her mind and centres her thoughts. Having English on either side this could be to show that there is more English in her life but the language that holds it all together is her mother tongue, Guajarati. Both poems are multi-lingual with Agard mixing Patios and English. In his sentences he has casually overlapped colloquial English and patois; you could say that the poem is half English half patois showing that he is half of each, emphasising his original message of the poem. The language that Agard has used has made his poem read like a conversation. His use of colloquial English has added to this, but the way he opens his poem in very formal and polite, this could be to get the attention of the reader, or to mimic ‘posh people’. He also introduces the poem by saying â€Å"excuse me, standing on one leg, I’m half-caste† to say that the first thing people want to know is his race not him, his name, or his personality. Also the connotations with standing on one leg, saying that he is only worth to stand on one leg and that being half-caste mean he is half a man. Also by using metaphors such as â€Å"yu mean when light and shadow, mix in de sky, is half-caste weather?† he is accentuating the stupidity of the phrase half-caste and how observed the word truly is. His language also has hints of subtle humour. For example, â€Å"well in dat case, England weather, nearly always half-caste†. Here he is making fun of English weather saying that it isn’t good as it is always half light and half dark and he is saying that people are constantly surrounded by ‘half-caste’ images but never pick up on them so why should him and him only be subjected to this, what can be perceived as racist, phrase. As well as the above Agard emphasises the argument by constantly repeating words such as â€Å"explain yuself, what yu mean†. This fully drills the argument with full impact constantly asking the reader to change their attitude towards the term ‘half-caste’. Bhatt has a very blatant language variation in her poem as she has written in Guajarati and English two extremely different languages. This use of Guajarati shows that her life is mixture of both and that her Guajarati will near be lost and will always be in her thoughts and life. Also in this poem Bhatt uses the word ‘I’ allot, â€Å"you ask me what I mean by saying I have lost my tongue,† by doing this Bhatt is constantly referring to herself making it much more likely for other multi ethnic people to relate to the poem. What’s more Bhatt uses some very powerful lines for instance, â€Å"if you had two tongues in your mouth, and you lost the first one, the mother tongue, and could not really know the other, the foreign tongue†. In these lines Bhatt talks about their tongues being in conflict, never really fully mixing or complementing each other, but she also talks about how without each other they wouldn’t work. Furthermore Bhatt writes about how you will never lose the mother tongue, â€Å"†¦but overnight when I dream, it grows back†¦the bud opens†¦it blossoms out of my mouth†, this says and shows that the reinforcement of the mother tongue is unstoppable and by using the metaphor of a flower, it makes it beautiful. Agard has filled his poem up to the brim with many different metaphors and images. All of the images he uses like, â€Å"yu mean Tchaikovsky, sit down at dah piano, and mix a black key, wid a white key, is a half-caste symphony?†, emphasise the ridiculousness of the term, and it also highlights that if you use the term half caste for people then you need to use it for everything even things that are highly respected in society. In addition to these images Agard writes some very obscure and irregular images in the third stanza of the poem. Agard goes on to say, â€Å"an when I’m introduces to yu, I’m sure you’ll understand why I offer yu half-a-hand, and when I sleep at night I close half-a-eye†. These are very powerful images that Agard is writing and they are one final punch in the poem to try and truly highlight the complete stupidity of the term half-caste and also by making many references of half-a-human this can show that the term of half-caste can hurt and be offensive as well as not necessary. Finally in the last six lines of the poem Agard says that it is us who isn’t whole and we need to listen to his story with â€Å"de whole of yu mind† to truly understand the ‘other half’ of his story. These lines flip the racist connotations of the term saying that those who use it are the true ‘not whole’ people. Bhatt has one major image that carries the whole poem through the words and making the poem flow. She referees to languages as plants. For example, â€Å"it grows back, a stump of a shoot grows longer, grows moist, grows strong veins†¦it blossoms†. Bhatt does this to show clearly what she means by ‘loosing he tongue’ because plants die when in the wrong environment and they need nutrients of their home soil to live, so she is saying that so your mother tongue doesn’t die you need to feed it with culture of your home. Also Bhatt may use the idea of plants as this accentuates the fact that when you become comfortable with the fact that you have ‘two tongues’ you can grow, blossom and enrich yourself with confidence. She also uses lines that create strong images like, â€Å"your tongue would rot, rot and die in your mouth until you had to spit it out.† By saying that you must spit it out shows how disgusted she is by the fact that she thinks that she has lost her mother tongue. Throughout Agard’s poem there is a mixture of many tones. There is a slight angry tone; he is slightly warning those that use the word half-caste. He constantly says â€Å"explain yuself† and by doing so he is almost threatening the reader, he is challenging the reader to try and explain why this term should be acceptable. There is also a very slight apologetic tone to the poem, in the first stanza especially, as the poem begins with the line, â€Å"excuse me†, almost like he is apologising for being mixed race, again emphasising the utter silliness of the term half-caste. The entire poem has the tone of over exertion of all emotions; again i feel that this is just to highlight the ridiculous phrase that is half-caste. Unlike Agard’s poem half-caste, Bhatt has a much more peaceful and calm tone to her writing. Her poem flows of the tongue and is read very gently. This could almost be to emphasise the idea that sleep, a calm concept, unlocking the mother tongue, or is to make sure that the idea of anger isn’t brought across but it is more the idea of confusion and the idea of being lost without the mother tongue. I think that Agard is almost vulgarly blatant with his message that the term half-caste shouldn’t be used and demines people that are mixed race. He argues the idea that when two opposite are mixed it creates something better, new and exciting. For example he writes â€Å"yu mean when Picasso mix red an green is a half-caste canvas?† he is almost using reverse psychology as Picasso by mixing red and green created an amazing canvas. He is using this poem to make it clear to people how offending this term can be and that it can truly rip a man’s pride in half. Bhatt however, is conveying almost an opposite message. She is saying that no matter what you do, say, or for that matter what other people say, you can never lose who you are or where you came from or put in other words you can never lose your past. All in all I feel that the poems both convey the message that they set out to and did it with real passion but with two completely different massaged and two completely different styles, it really shows two completely different attitudes to dealing with a multi racial life.

Concrete Operations Stage

Concrete operations are the third stage of Piagetian cognitive development, during which children develop logical but not abstract thinking (Papalia p. 351). The concrete operational stage begins around age seven and continues until approximately age eleven. During this time, children gain a better understanding of mental operations. Children begin thinking logically about concrete events, but have difficulty understanding abstract or hypothetical concepts. Piaget determined that children in the concrete operational stage were fairly good at the use of inductive logic. Inductive logic involves going from a specific experience to a general principle. On the other hand, children at this age have difficulty using deductive logic, which involves using a general principle to determine the outcome of a specific event. This stage is also characterized by a loss of egocentric thinking. Egocentrism is Piaget’s term for inability to consider another person’s point of view; a characteristic of young children’s thought (Papalia p. G-3). During this stage, the child has the ability to master most types of conservation experiments, and begins to understand reversibility. Conservation is the realization that quantity or amount does not change when nothing has been added or taken away from an object or a collection of objects, despite changes in form or spatial arrangement. The concrete operational stage is also characterized by the child’s ability to coordinate two dimensions of an object simultaneously, arrange structures in sequence, and transpose differences between items in a series. The child is capable of concrete problem-solving. Categorical labels such as â€Å"number† or â€Å"animal† are now available to the child. The first, and most discussed, of these limitations is egocentrism. The pre-operational child has a â€Å"'self-centred' view of the world† (Smith, Cowie and Blades, 2003, p. 399), meaning that she has difficulty understanding that other people may see things differently, and hence hold a differing point of view. Piaget's classic test for egocentrism is the three mountains task (Piaget and Inhelder, 1956), which concrete operational thinkers can complete successfully. A second limitation which is overcome in the concrete operational stage is the perceptual domination of one aspect of a situation. Before the stage begins, the child's perception of any situation or problem will be dominated by one aspect; this is best illustrated by the failure of pre-operational children to pass Piaget's conservation tasks (Piaget and Inhelder, 1974). Perhaps the most important limitation, yet the most difficult to describe and measure, is that of the turn to logical operators. A pre-operational child will use mostly simple, heuristic strategies in problem solving. Once a child reaches the concrete operational stage, they will be in possession of a completely new set of strategies, allowing problem solving using logical rules. This new ability manifests itself most clearly in children's justifications for their answers. Concrete operational thinkers will explicitly state their use of logical rules in problem solving (Harris and Butterworth, 2002). This area also indicates the way in which the concrete operational stage can be negatively defined; although children can now use logical strategies, these can only be applied to concrete, immediately present objects. Thinking has become logical, but is not yet abstract. These shifts in the child's thinking lead to a number of new abilities which are also major, positively defined characteristics of the concrete operational stage. The most frequently cited ability is conservation. Now that children are no longer perceptually dominated by one aspect of a situation, they can track changes much more easily and recognize that some properties of an object will persevere through change. Conservation is always gained in the same order, firstly with respect to number, followed secondly by weight, and thirdly by volume. A second new ability gained in the concrete operational stage is reversibility. This refers to the ability to mentally trace backwards, and is of enormous help to the child in both their problem solving and the knowledge they have of their own problem solving. For the former this is because they can see that in a conservation task, for example, the change made could be reversed to regain the original properties. With respect to knowledge of their own problem solving, they become able to retrace their mental steps, allowing an entirely new level of reflection. Concrete operational children also gain the ability to structure objects hierarchically, known as classification. This includes the notion of class inclusion, e. g. understanding an object being part of a subset included within a parent set, and is shown on Piaget's inclusion task, asking children to identify, out of a number of brown and white wooden beads, whether there were more brown beads or wooden beads (Piaget, 1965). Seriation is another new ability gained during this stage, and refers to the child's ability to order objects with respect to a common property. A simple example of this would be placing a number of sticks in order of height. An important new ability which develops from the interplay of both seriation and classification is that of numeration. Whilst pre-operational children are obviously capable of counting, it is only during the concrete operational stage that they become able to apply mathematical operators, thanks to their abilities to order things in terms of number (seriation) and to split numbers into sets and subsets (classification), enabling more complex multiplication, division and so on. Finally, and also following the development of seriation, is transitive inference. This is the name given to children's ability to compare two objects via an intermediate object. So for instance, one stick could be deemed to be longer than another by both being individually compared to another (third) stick. Concrete operational stage (Elementary and early adolescence). This stage (characterized by 7 types of conservation: number, length, liquid, mass, weight, area, volume), intelligence is demonstrated through logical and systematic manipulation of symbols related to concrete objects. Operational thinking develops (mental actions that are reversible). Egocentric thought diminishes.